New study shows that Androctonus venom causes rapid blood clotting in humans

 

Scorpion venom is known for its neurotoxic effects that can cause death and serious morbidity in humans. A recent study by Sam Campbell and co-workers shows that the venom in four Androctonus Ehrenberg, 1828 (Buthidae) species also have a procoagulant toxicological function. In plain text, the venom causes blood clots that make the blood coagulate. Interestingly, antivenom for Androctonus envenomations seem to fail to neutralise procoagulation. 

These findings are important in assessing envenomated patients and their treatment. In addition, the findings can also have potential when it comes to developing diagnostic tools for blood disorders or treatments.

Abstract:
While scorpion venoms are well-characterised as being potently neurotoxic, their effects upon blood coagulation are understudied. Here, we report novel procoagulant toxicological functions for Androctonus amoreuxi, A. australis, A. bicolor and A. crassicauda venoms. Factor activation tests with A. amoreuxi venom revealed cofactor-dependent activation of Factor VII (FVII) and Factor X (FX) to be the primary zymogen targets, with FX the more potently activated. Activation of both factors was demonstrated to be dependent upon the proteinaceous cofactor Factor Va (FVa) and the biochemical cofactors calcium and phospholipid. It was also shown that venom was able to convert Factor V (FV) into a form of FVa that was equipotent to endogenous FVa, suggestive of the venom cleaving FV at the same activation site as thrombin. Intriguingly, low level FXII activation only proceeded with the venom-activated form of FVa and was not reliant upon calcium or phospholipid. Antivenom produced with Androctonus species included in the immunising mixture failed to neutralise procoagulation. However, neutralisation of procoagulant activities was achieved by the metalloprotease inhibiting drugs marimastat and prinomastat, thereby not only revealing the enzyme type responsible for the effects upon blood coagulation, but also suggesting therapeutic options. These results indicate that venom-induced coagulopathy resulting from scorpion envenomation may require greater consideration in pathophysiological profiling of envenomed patients. The implications extend beyond the field of toxinology, building a foundation for evolutionary studies into the selection pressures that have resulted in some species having potent effects upon blood biochemistry, whether as a weapon for predation or defence.

Reference:
Campbell SID, Seneci L, Jones L, Champagne PS, Fry BG. The sting that clots: The Factor VII and Factor X activating procoagulant effects of Androctonus scorpion venoms are potentiated by Factor Va as a cofactor. Biochimie. 2026;245:31–9. [Open Access]

Thanks to Jeroen Kooijman for informing me about this article! 

 

Two papers on the venom and venom effect of Tityus species in Brazil

 

As most of you know, there are several medical important scorpions in the Genus Tityus C. L. Koch, 1836 (Buthidae) in Brazil and other countries of South America. Knowledge of the venom composition of dangerous scorpions and their clinical effect is important, both for understanding how they work, but also to develop effective anti-venom therapy. In addition, studying scorpion venom is also important to see if there are components that can be used in medical research.

Last fall there was published two papers on the biochemistry and the effects of the venom of several species of Tityus (and one species of Brotheas C.L. Koch, 1837 in Chactidae). I refer to the abstracts below for further details on these studies.

Paper 1:

Abstract:
Scorpionism is a growing public health concern in Brazil, with the Amazon region presenting the highest mortality rates but remaining understudied, especially regarding local scorpion venoms composition. This study presents the first comprehensive biochemical characterization of venoms from three Amazonian species—Tityus metuendus (TmetuV), Tityus silvestris (TsilvV), and Brotheas amazonicus (BamazV)—using an integrated approach combining Multi-Enzymatic Limited Digestion (MELD)-based bottom-up proteomics, highresolution LC-MS/MS, chromatography, zymography, and enzymatic assays. Tityus serrulatus venom was included as a reference. Significant biochemical differences were observed: TsilvV was rich in 20–30 kDa proteins and showed strong metalloprotease activity; BamazV exhibited high molecular weight proteins and potent phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activity but lacked proteolytic and fibrinogenolytic activities; TmetuV showed the highest hyaluronidase activity and abundance of α-KTx neurotoxins. Zymography revealed a conserved ~45 kDa hyaluronidase in all species. Three novel components were partially characterized: BamazPLA2 (Group III PLA2), Tmetu1 (37-residue α-KTx), and TsilvMP_A (a metalloprotease homologous to antarease). This is the first application of MELD-based proteomics to Amazonian scorpion venoms, revealing molecular diversity and functional divergence within Tityus and Brotheas, emphasizing the need for region-specific antivenoms. These findings provide a foundation for future pharmacological studies and the discovery of bioactive peptides with therapeutic potential.

Reference:
Bordon KCF, Santos GC, Martins JG, Wiezel GA, Amorim FG, Crasset T, et al. Pioneering Comparative Proteomic and Enzymatic Profiling of Amazonian Scorpion Venoms Enables the Isolation of Their First α-Ktx, Metalloprotease, and Phospholipase A(2). Toxins (Basel). 2025;17(8). [Open Access]

Paper 2:

Abstract:
Scorpion stings are considered a neglected condition and represent a serious health problem in many tropical countries, especially for children and the elderly. In Brazil, the yellow scorpion (Tityus serrulatus) is widely found and responsible for the majority of severe envenoming cases; however, other medically relevant species endemic to the Brazilian Amazon region, such as Tityus silvestris, Tityus metuendus and Tityus obscurus, remain underexplored. In the present study, we characterized the clinical, inflammatory and histopathological responses induced by venoms from these Amazonian species in a murine model (Balb/c mice), using T. serrulatus as a reference. Envenomation with T. silvestris resulted in pronounced systemic manifestations, including elevated clinical scores, hyperglycemia, leukocytosis, cytokine release (IL-6, IL-1β, IL-10), and tissue injury in the lungs and kidneys, comparable to the pathophysiological manifestations from T. serrulatus venom. In contrast, T. metuendus and T. obscurus induced milder inflammatory profiles. It is noteworthy that cross-reactivity assays revealed limited immunoreactivity and reduced in vivo neutralization of T. metuendus and T. obscurus venoms by the commercially available T. serrulatus-based antivenom. These findings reveal critical limitations in relying on a single-species antivenom for treating scorpion envenomation across diverse regions and underscore the need for region-specific therapeutic strategies tailored to the distinct venom profiles and pathogenicity of Amazonian Tityus species.

Reference:
Zoccal KF, de Castro Figueiredo Bordon K, Reis MB, Rosa Nunes de Souza Chini PB, Martins JG, Zuanazzi BA, et al. Divergent clinical, inflammatory, and histopathological responses induced by Amazonian Tityus venoms: insights and limitations of current antivenom therapy. Biochimie. 2025;238(Pt B):159–71. [Subscription required for full text]

Thanks to Jonas Martins for sending me the two articles!

The venom of the chactid Brotheas amazonicus may be used in cancer research and treatment

 

There have been a lot of research into scorpion venom to find potential agents to be used in medicine and treatment of serious diseases like cancer. Chlorotoxin from the venom of Leiurus quinquestriatus (Ehrenberg, 1828) (Buthidae) is one example of a very promising agent in the fight against serious brain cancer.

In a recent paper by Mouzarllem Barros Reis and co-workers, they studied the venom of the amazonian scorpion  Brotheas amazonicus Lourenço, 1988 (Chactidae). I'm not going into detail about this work as this is way outside my expertise, but just mention that the study demonstrates that venom of the this species contains a scorpine-like molecule with high cytolytic activity in human breast cancer tumor lines. This opens that possibility for using molecules from the venom into cancer research and therapy.

Abstract:
Introduction: Scorpion venoms contain bioactive molecules with potential antitumor properties. This study aimed to evaluate the cytotoxic effects of crude Brotheas amazonicus venom (BamazV) and its molecular weight–separated fractions on human breast cancer cell lines, with a focus on identifying active compounds and elucidating their mechanisms of action.
Methods: Human breast epithelial (MCF10A) and breast cancer cell lines (SKBR3, MCF7, and MDA-MB-231) were first assessed for dose-dependent responses to paclitaxel, a standard chemotherapeutic agent. BamazV was fractionated by ultrafiltration into >10 kDa, 3–10 kDa, and <3 kDa fractions, which were tested for cytotoxic activity. The active fraction underwent reversed-phase chromatography, and the major bioactive peptide was characterized by mass spectrometry and Edman degradation. Cytotoxic mechanisms were investigated using cell death assays.
Results: All cell lines showed a dose-dependent response to paclitaxel. Crude BamazV induced significant cytotoxicity at concentrations ≥ 50 μg/mL, with triplenegativeMDA- MB-231 cells being themost sensitive. The >10 kDa fraction retained cytotoxic activity, leading to the isolation of a major peptide, BamazScplp1. Sequence analysis revealed 46–55% identity and 74–81% similarity to known scorpine-like peptides. Functional assays indicated that BamazScplp1 induced predominantly necrotic cell death, consistent with the activity profile of previously reported cytolytic scorpine-like molecules.
Discussion: These findings identify BamazScplp1 as a scorpine-like peptide with selective cytotoxicity toward triple-negative breast cancer cells, underscoring the potential of B. amazonicus venom as a source of bioactive compounds for cancer research.

Reference:
Reis MB, Bordon KDCF, Martins JG, Wiezel GA, Cipriano U, Procopio REdL, et al. A novel scorpine-like peptide from the amazonian scorpion Brotheas amazonicus with cytolytic activity. Front Pharmacol. 2025;16:1652614. [Open Access]

Thanks to Jonas Martins for sending me their article!

A study of the venom proteome of the buthid Hottentotta judaicus

 

Adolfo Borges and co-workers recently published a study of the venom proteome of Hottentotta judaicus (Simon, 1872) (Buthidae). The study identified 55 components across 15 protein families, with ion channel toxins and enzymes predominating. 

This stuff is not within my scorpion competence, but I understand that the results are expanding the  repertoire of potential bioactive components prompts in the venom and that H. judaicus venom may pose a larger risk to human than previously assumed, especially for children or those with underlying cardiovascular conditions.

Abstract:
The scorpion Hottentotta judaicus inhabits the Levant region of the Middle East, including Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, and Israel. While previous research focused on its insecticidal properties and sodium-channel-targeting toxins, its venom remains largely unexplored using modern proteomic approaches. We analyzed the venom composition of H. judaicus from Lebanese specimens using nESI-MS/MS, MALDI-TOF MS, SDS-PAGE, and RP-HPLC. Venom lethality in mice was assessed (LD₅₀ = 11.87 [6.59–17.16] mg/kg, i.p.), confirming moderate toxicity to vertebrates. RP-HPLC on C18 resolved 37 peaks, with 25 eluting between 20–40% acetonitrile. Reducing SDS-PAGE revealed predominant components < 10 kDa and minor bands at 31, 46, and 77 kDa. MaLDI-TOF MS detected 20 components from 1,000–12,000 m/z. A bottom-up shotgun nLC-MS/MS approach, following in-gel tryptic digestion of venom, identified 55 components across 15 protein families. Ion channel-active toxins [K⁺ (7), Na⁺ (16), Cl⁻ (1), ryanodine receptor (1)] and enzyme components (17) were predominant. This study provides proteomic evidence of H. judaicus venom components previously only identified at the transcriptomic level and reveals a richer venom profile than anticipated. Novel identified components include alternative β-subunits of lipolysis-activating proteins, as well as homologs of Olivierus martensii antimicrobial peptide inhibitor HAP- 1, Leiurus hebraeus Lqhβ1, Parabuthus transvaalicus Birtoxin, and peptide Hj2a from Hottentotta jayakari exhibiting dual α/β-toxin activity on Nav1.1 channels. This expanding repertoire of potential bioactive components prompts a reevaluation of the pathophysiological consequences of H. judaicus envenomation in humans and further exploration of their potential biomedical applications.

Reference:
Borges A, Lomonte B, de Arias AR, Fernandez J. Proteomic characterization and lethality of the venom of the Black Judean scorpion, Hottentotta judaicus (Buthidae): expanded toxin diversity and revisited toxicological significance. Arch Toxicol. 2025. Published online 10. September 2025. [Subscription required for full text]

Thanks to Adolfo for informing me about their article!

A biochemical and proteomic study of Amazonian scorpion venoms

 

Studying the venom composition of scorpions is important. It is important to know the venom composition in medical important species to understand their pathological effect and better be able to develop antivenom or treatment. In addition, scorpion venom is a treasure chest filled with different peptides and toxins that can be used to develop medicines. 

Karla Bordon and co-workers recently published a study presenting a comprehensive biochemical characterization of venom from three Amazonian species, Tityus metuendus Pocock, 1897, T. silvestris Pocock, 1897 (both Buthidae) and Brotheas amazonicus  Lourenço, 1988 (Chactidae).

According to the article, "the results suggest a correlation between ecological divergence and venom composition, with implications for both toxicity and antivenom development".

Abstract:
Scorpionism is a growing public health concern in Brazil, with the Amazon region presenting the highest mortality rates but remaining understudied, especially regarding local scorpion venoms composition. This study presents the first comprehensive biochemical characterization of venoms from three Amazonian species—Tityus metuendus (TmetuV), Tityus silvestris (TsilvV), and Brotheas amazonicus (BamazV)—using an integrated approach combining Multi-Enzymatic Limited Digestion (MELD)-based bottom-up proteomics, highresolution LC-MS/MS, chromatography, zymography, and enzymatic assays. Tityus serrulatus venom was included as a reference. Significant biochemical differences were observed: TsilvV was rich in 20–30 kDa proteins and showed strong metalloprotease activity; BamazV exhibited high molecular weight proteins and potent phospholipase A2 (PLA2)
activity but lacked proteolytic and fibrinogenolytic activities; TmetuV showed the highest hyaluronidase activity and abundance of α-KTx neurotoxins. Zymography revealed a conserved ~45 kDa hyaluronidase in all species. Three novel components were partially characterized: BamazPLA2 (Group III PLA2), Tmetu1 (37-residue α-KTx), and TsilvMP_A (a metalloprotease homologous to antarease). This is the first application of MELD-based proteomics to Amazonian scorpion venoms, revealing molecular diversity and functional divergence within Tityus and Brotheas, emphasizing the need for region-specific antivenoms. These findings provide a foundation for future pharmacological studies and the discovery of bioactive peptides with therapeutic potential.

Reference:
Bordon KC, Santos GC, Martins JG, Wiezel GA, Amorim FG, Crasset T, et al. Pioneering Comparative Proteomic and Enzymatic Profiling of Amazonian Scorpion Venoms Enables the Isolation of Their First α-Ktx, Metalloprotease, and Phospholipase A2. Toxins. 2025;17(8):411. [Open Access]

Thanks to Jonas Martins for sending me their article!

Antibiotic-producing bacteria discovered in tissue from the giant sand scorpion, Smeringurus mesaensis

 

As most of you know, there is an increasing and worrying number of treatment resistant bacteria in the world. It is probably safe to say that we are now in an antibiotic resistance crisis. The venom of scorpions have for several years provided several candidates for medical treatments (e.g. Chlorotoxin from Leiurus quinquestriatus (Ehrenberg, 1828) (Buthidae)), but a recent paper suggests that scorpions can contribute with more than their venom.

In a recent article, Atkinson and co-workers present the discovery of antibiotic-producing bacteria in tissue samples from the giant sand scorpion, Smeringurus mesaensis (Stahnke, 1957) (Vaejovidae). It is important to note that this is results from laboratory studies and more research is necessary before the antibiotic effect can be confirmed for humans. But the study opens up the exciting possibility that scorpion tissues can provide a new source of antimicrobial molecules in the war against antibiotic resistance. 

Abstract:
Antibiotic resistance is a global health crisis. Our current arsenal of antibiotics—drugs meant to kill bacteria and stop their population growth—is becoming less effective at treating bacterial infections as resistant bacteria emerge, fueling the dire need to discover new antibiotics. Most antibiotics in use today have been discovered from bacteria. To increase the chances of finding potentially novel antibiotic molecules, we studied the relatively unexplored microbial environment of scorpion tissues, using the giant sand scorpion, Smeringurus mesaensis (Stahnke, 1957). Bacterial symbionts were isolated and cultured from the mesosoma and metasoma, and isolates were tested in a functional assay for production of antibiotics. Under the culture conditions utilized, most scorpion-derived bacteria were from the phyla of Firmicutes, Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria. Fifty five percent of the clonal isolates tested produced antibiotics, with most being Bacillus species. None of the bacterial conditioned media were cytotoxic to mammalian cells. This study suggests scorpion tissues may provide a rich source of antimicrobial molecules to help combat the antibiotic resistance crisis.

Reference:
Atkinson L, Shimwell C, Lucin KM, Graham MR, Murdoch B. Antibiotic-producing bacteria isolated from the giant sand scorpion, Smeringurus mesaensis (Scorpiones: Vaejovidae). The Journal of Arachnology. 2024;52(2):116-26. [Subscription required for full text]

Thanks to Matt Simon for informing me about this article!

Venom of two scorpion species can be used in developing drugs against the tropical disease Leishmaniasis

 

Scorpions and their venom is a goldmine when it comes to finding molecules and toxins that can be used to develop medicines and other useful products for humans. One of the most known examples is Chlorotoxin, a peptid found in the venom of Leiurus quinquestriatus (Ehrenberg, 1828) (Buthidae), which has been used in the development of methods for the treatment and diagnosis of several types of cancer. There is a huge amount of research on scorpion venom going on these days.

D. B. Pereiraa and co-workers recently published a study where they showed that the venoms of Brotheas amazonicus Lourenço, 1988 (Chactidae) and Tityus metuendus Pocock, 1897 (Buthidae) can be used in the fight against the tropical disease Leishmaniasis (a zonosis caused by parasites of the Trypanosomatida genus Leishmania). The authors hope that components in the venom can be used in the development of new drugs against this serious tropical disease.

Abstract:
Leishmaniasis is a vector-transmitted zoonosis caused by different species of the genus Leishmania, with a wide clinical spectrum. It is a public health problem aggravated by a series of limitations regarding treatment. In the search for new therapeutic alternatives, scorpion venoms are a source of multifunctional molecules that act against the natural resistance of pathogens. This work evaluated the antileishmanial potential of Brotheas amazonicus and Tityus metuendus venoms against the promastigote forms of Leishmania amazonensis e Leishmania guyanensis. The venoms of B. amazonicus and T. metuendus were evaluated for their constituents using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR). Growth inhibition and death of promastigotes were evaluated in the presence of diferente crude venom concentrations (100 μg/mL, 50 μg/mL, 10 μg/mL, 1 μg/mL) after one hour of incubation at 25 °C. The FTIR spectra of both venoms exhibited bands in approximate regions, revealing that both exhibit similar functional groups. Crude venom from both scorpion species showed similar or superior leishmanicidal effects to the standart drug N-methylglucamine antimoniate. At the highest concentration of 100 μg/mL, cultures of L. guyanensis treated with the venom of B. amazonicus showed the highest mortality percentages, above 28%, while T. metuendus venom showed the highest activity against L. amazonensis, with mortality above 7%. This preliminar study demonstrates that B. amazonicus and T. metuendus venoms can be important tools in the search for new drugs Against leishmaniasis. Next step involves evaluating the activity against the amastigote forms and purifying the venom proteins in order to identify the best anti-leishmania candidates.

Reference:
Pereira D, Martins J, Oliveira M, Lima-Júnior R, Rocha L, Andrade S, Procópio R. Leishmanicidal activity of the venoms of the Scorpions Brotheas amazonicus and Tityus metuendus. Brazilian Journal of Biology. 2023;83:e276872. [Open Access]

Thanks to Jonas Martin for sending me their article!

Scorpion biology and folklore in Durango City, Mexico

 

Mexico is a hot spot for scorpion diversity and also hosts many of the worlds most venomous species in the genus Centruroides Marx, 1890 (Buthidae).  One of the most famous scorpion places in Mexico is "The City of Scorpions" Durango, where the infamous and very venomous species Centruroides suffusus Pocock, 1902 is very common.

 Eduardo Gonzalez-Ponce and several co-workers have recently published an interesting article about different aspects of the biology of the Durango scorpion including the scorpions' response to light, medical importance and the use of its venom for research and medicine. Of special interest is the description of how the peoples of Durango utilize the scorpions as souvenirs for tourists and as an exotic food source.

Abstract:
Scorpions are incredible venomous animals found on almost every continent. According to fossil data, these animals have been able to adapt to the different environments from the Cambrian period until today with minimal anatomical changes. Scorpions are mostly nocturnal animals, and their ability to detect and tolerate light stimuli seems to be an essential tool for their subsistence, homing and mating. Centruroides suffuses is the most predominant specie of scorpions in Durango City, Mexico. Interestingly, and despite their life-threatening venom, these predatory arthropod animals have been adopted by locals as part of the landscape and daily life, by including them as part of their folklore and their economic resources, and learning how to take advantage of their abundance. In addition, the venom of scorpions possesses potential for therapeutic uses, while the scorpions themselves represent a nutritional food resource rich in protein, which has been poorly explored so far. Therefore, they are an excellent model for exploring the interplay between light sensibilities, survival and therapeutic–medicinal uses. Here, we review some of the potential benefits of scorpions and share the ways people in Durango City, Mexico, use UV light devices to detect and avoid or catch them for business and research purposes.

Reference:
Gonzalez-Ponce E, Rodríguez-Rangel S, Martinez R, Alvarado A, Ruiz-Baca E, Miranda P, et al. Scorpions, Science and Folklore in Durango City. Diversity. 2023;15(6):743. [Open Access]

New method for scorpion venom research spares the scorpion's life

 

Scorpion venom is highly investigated, both because of the medical important of this animal group, but also because the different scorpion venom types are candidates of pharmaceutically active molecules with potential drug applications.

The most popular method today to study scorpion venoms is transcriptome studies. The current method for obtaining a scorpion venom gland transcriptome is based on sacrificing the animal to extract the venom gland from the telson (they cut of the telson). This means a lot of dead scorpions each year in the name of science.

Freek J. Vonk and several co-workers have now published an article describing a new method of generating a scorpion venom gland transcriptome without sacrificing the animal. This is good news as it will spare many scorpion lives, but also opens up new possibilities for testing the venom from the same scorpion several times (e.g. by allowing the study of the transcriptome at various time points within a single individual).

Abstract:
Scorpion venoms are mixtures of proteins, peptides and small molecular compounds with high specificity for ion channels and are therefore considered to be promising candidates in the venoms-to-drugs pipeline. Transcriptomes are important tools for studying the composition and expression of scorpion venom. Unfortunately, studying the venom gland transcriptome traditionally requires sacrificing the animal and therefore is always a single snapshot in time. This paper describes a new way of generating a scorpion venom gland transcriptome without sacrificing the animal, thereby allowing the study of the transcriptome at various time points within a single individual. By comparing these venom-derived transcriptomes to the traditional whole-telson transcriptomes we show that the relative expression levels of the major toxin classes are similar. We further performed a multi-day extraction using our proposed method to show the possibility of doing a multiple time point transcriptome analysis. This allows for the study of patterns of toxin gene activation over time a single individual, and allows assessment of the effects of diet, season and other factors that are known or likely to influence intraindividual venom composition. We discuss the gland characteristics that may allow this method to be successful in scorpions and provide a review of other venomous taxa to which this method may potentially be successfully applied.

References:
Vonk FJ, Bittenbinder MA, Kerkkamp HMI, Grashof DGB, Archer JP, Afonso S, et al. A non-lethal method for studying scorpion venom gland transcriptomes, with a review of potentially suitable taxa to which it can be applied. PLoS One. 2021;16(11):e0258712. [Open Access]

Thanks to Arie van der Meijden for sending me their interesting article!

The hunt for easy money from venom extraction may cause the extinction of some scorpion species

 

I guess many of you have seen reports in the media about the value of scorpion venom for research and that it is possible to earn millions of US$ on venom extraction. I get email inquires regularly from hopeful amateurs in Asia that want information about how to get scorpions and how to milk them.

This hunt for easy money may have an impact on the scorpion populations in many areas and may drive species to extinctions. A recent article by Alireza Zamani addresses this challenge and is well worth a read.

And for any money hungry scorpion hunters out there: There are serious doubts about the quality of the venom being extracted at amateur scorpion farms and most serious venom suppliers are probably not interested in purchasing amateur products. So leave the scorpions in nature and get rich in another way!

Abstract:
The pharmacological utility of various biochemical compounds in scorpion venom offers promise in several research fields but its potential economic value has placed pressure on scorpion populations already threatened by habitat destruction and overharvesting for the international trade in exotic pets. Since at least 2016, several countries in Africa and Asia reported an increase in the number of people investing in farms for maintaining scorpions and extracting (‘milking’) their venom for commercial use. In addition to serious doubts about the quality of the venom extracted at these farms, repeated collecting of wild specimens may denude an area of scorpions. Given estimates of a million species threatened with extinction over the next decade, unsustainable overexploitation remains a major driver of biodiversity loss. The amateur venom-extraction business has the potential to adversely affect scorpion biodiversity in several biologically rich but poorly documented countries, which calls for urgent action from governments, universities and scientific societies to enhance the conservation of local scorpions. The following activities should thus be initiated or expanded: faunistic surveys and developing national lists of endemic species, red-listing threatened and endangered species using the IUCN Red List categories and criteria, educating local communities, and ceasing to issue permits for the collection of scorpions for commercial exploitation of any kind.

Reference:
Zamani A, Sääksjärvi IE, Prendini L. Amateur venom-extraction business may hasten extinction of scorpions. Arachnologische Mitteilungen. 2021;61:20-3.[Open Access]

Thanks to Jeroen Kooijman for sending me this article!

Scorpion venom can kill dangerous, resistant bacterias in a safe way

I usually do not post much about biochemical and toxicology research on scorpion venom as I have very little expertise on these topics. As many of you probably have noticed, there is a lot of research on scorpion venom trying to identify components in the venom that can be used for medical and/or commercial purposes. Because of this, scorpion venom is now considered one of the most expensive materials on earth. This week a very interesting study was published.

Edson Norberto Carcamo-Noriegaa and co-workers have identified twopreviously unknown benzoquinones in the venom of the Mexican scorpion Diplocentrus melici Armas, Martin-Frias & Berea, 2004 (Scorpionidae). The study shows that these two compounds can kill dangerous staphylococcus and tuberculosis bacteria in a safe way. The researchers also were able to synthesize the two compounds, making this a very promising tool for a future medicine against dangerous and resistant bacterias.

If you can not access the article, you can check out this news report from Stanford University summing up the main findings.

Abstract:
Two 1,4-benzoquinone derivatives, found in the venom of the scorpion Diplocentrus melici following exposure to air, have been isolated, characterized, synthesized, and assessed for antimicrobial activities. Initially a white, viscous liquid, the extracted venom colors within minutes under ambient conditions. From this colored mixture, two compounds, one red, the other blue, were isolated and purified using chromatography. After a variety of NMR and mass spectrometry experiments, the red compound was determined to be 3,5- dimethoxy-2-(methylthio)cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione, and the blue compound was determined to be 5-methoxy-2,3- bis(methylthio) cyclohexa-2,5-diene-1,4-dione. Because extremely small amounts of these compounds were isolated from the scorpion venom, we developed laboratory syntheses from commercially available precursors, allowing us to produce sufficient quantities for crystallization nd biological assays. The red benzoquinone is effective against Staphylococcus aureus [minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) = 4 μg/mL], while the blue benzoquinone is active against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MIC = 4 μg/mL) and even against a multidrug-resistant (MDR) strain with nearly equal effectiveness. The bactericidal effects of both benzoquinones show comparable activity to commercially available antibiotics used against these pathogens and were cytotoxic to neoplastic cell lines, suggesting
their potential as lead compounds for the development of novel antimicrobial and anticancer drugs. Importantly, the blue benzoquinone was also effective in vivo with mouse models of MDR tuberculosis infection. After treatment for 2 mo, four mice with late-stage active MDR tuberculosis had a significant decrease in pulmonary bacillary loads and tissue damage. Healthy mice served as negative controls and tolerated treatment well, without adverse side effects.

Reference:
Carcamo-Noriega EN, Sathyamoorthi S, Banerjee S, Gnanamani E, Mendoza-Trujillo M, Mata-Espinosa D, et al. 1,4-Benzoquinone antimicrobial agents against Staphylococcus aureus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis derived from scorpion venom. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2019:201812334. [Subscription required for full text]

Thanks to Matt Simon for informing me about this interesting article!

A global review of medically important scorpions and scorpionism

Micaiah Ward and co-workers at Florida State University recently published an extensive review of medically important scorpions, epidemiology and scorpionism. The number of medical important species is raised to 104 (Buthidae: 101, Hemiscorpiidae: 2, Scorpionidae: 1). Of these, 36 species are considered dangerous (causing class II and III symptoms).

It is important to understand that a list like this can not be perfect. The species identification in many sting cases can be missing or wrong. Taxonomy is changing, and a species may turn out to be a species complex with potentially different venom potency (e.g. The Buthus occitanus complex). We should be careful not to label all species not on this list as harmless. A dangerous species may never have stung a human or the sting case was never reported. Also, many stings are dry or a reduced amount of venom is used, causing minor/mild symptoms and by this camouflaging a dangerous species. The article discuss some of these conserns.

 The article also has information about the distribution of medically important species, venom composition and the use of scorpion venom in biomedical research.

Abstract:
Scorpions are an ancient and diverse venomous lineage, with over 2200 currently recognized species. Only a small fraction of scorpion species are considered harmful to humans, but the often life-threatening symptoms caused by a single sting are significant enough to recognize scorpionism as a global health problem. The continued discovery and classification of new species has led to a steady increase in the number of both harmful and harmless scorpion species. The purpose of this review is to update the global record of medically significant scorpion species, assigning each to a recognized sting class based on reported symptoms, and provide the major toxin classes identified in their venoms. We also aim to shed light on the harmless species that, although not a threat to human health, should still be considered medically relevant for their potential in therapeutic development. Included in our review is discussion of the many contributing factors that may cause error in epidemiological estimations and in the determination of medically significant scorpion species, and we provide suggestions for future scorpion research that will aid in overcoming these errors.

Reference:
Ward MJ, Ellsworth SA, Nystrom GS. A global accounting of medically significant scorpions: Epidemiology, major toxins, and comparative resources in harmless counterparts. Toxicon. 2018;151:137-55. [Subscription required for full text]

Thanks to Matt Simon for informing me about this article!

On the venom of Superstitionia donensis

There has been and is a lot of research on scorpion venoms, but the majority of these studies have been on species in the family Buthidae. Several families are not represented in the venom literature at all. Carlos E. Santibáñez-López and co-workers have now published a study on the venom of the enigmatic scorpion Superstitionia donensis Stahnke, 1940 (Superstitioniidae).

Abstract:
Venom gland transcriptomic and proteomic analyses have improved our knowledge on the diversity of the heterogeneous components present in scorpion venoms. However, most of these studies have focused on species from the family Buthidae. To gain insights into the molecular diversity of the venom components of scorpions belonging to the family Superstitioniidae, one of the neglected scorpion families, we performed a transcriptomic and proteomic analyses for the species Superstitionia donensis. The total mRNA extracted from the venom glands of two specimens was subjected to massive sequencing by the Illumina protocol, and a total of 219,073 transcripts were generated. We annotated 135 transcripts putatively coding for peptides with identity to known venom components available from different protein databases. Fresh venom collected by electrostimulation was analyzed by LC-MS/MS allowing the identification of 26 distinct components with sequences matching counterparts from the transcriptomic analysis. In addition, the phylogenetic affinities of the found putative calcins, scorpines, La1-like peptides and potassium channel toxins were analyzed. The first three components are often reported as ubiquitous in the venom of different families of scorpions. Our results suggest that, at least calcins and scorpines, could be used as molecular markers in phylogenetic studies of scorpion venoms.

Reference:
Santibanez-Lopez CE, Cid-Uribe JI, Batista CV, Ortiz E, Possani LD. Venom Gland Transcriptomic and Proteomic Analyses of the Enigmatic Scorpion Superstitionia donensis (Scorpiones: Superstitioniidae), with Insights on the Evolution of Its Venom Components. Toxins (Basel). 2016;8(12). [Open Access]

Thanks to Carlos E. Santibáñez-López for sending me their article!

Involuntary limb twitching after ingestion of scorpion-based Chinese medicine

Scorpions are known to be used in traditional Chinese cousin and medicine. The most used species is the butid Mesobuthus martensii (Karsch, 1879), which is commercially bred in farms in China.

Lam and co-workers now report about a man compalining about chest pain, dizziness, and generalised tremors 15 minutes after ingestion of a teaspoon of herbal powder with water. The powder was made of scorpions (M. martensii).

After ruling out other potential causes, the diagnosis of this case was compatible with neurotoxicity associated with the consumption of M. martensii powder, even though it could not be directly confirmed by chemical analysis.

Abstract:
Mesobuthus martensii Karsch, commonly known as the Chinese scorpion or Manchurian scorpion, has been used in traditional Chinese medicine as Quanxie to treat chronic pain, tetanus, tremors, convulsion, and paralysis for more than a thousand years. We report a case of poisoning after ingestion of a teaspoon of Quanxie powder. The patient presented with chest pain, dizziness, diaphoresis, generalised involuntary limb twitching, and hypertonia around 15 minutes post-ingestion. The patient recovered uneventfully after supportive management. Intravenous diazepam appeared to be effective in alleviating limb twitching. Failure to accurately measure the dose and to boil before consumption may have contributed to his clinical toxicities.

Reference:
Lam PK, Wong TW, Chan YC, Mak TW. Generalised involuntary limb twitching after ingestion of Mesobuthus martensii Karsch (Quanxie) powder. Hong Kong Med J. 2014 Dec;20(6):552-5. [Free full text]

The impact on Rhopalurus junecus populations in Cuba due to the "miracle drug"

The dark morph of Cubas blue scorpion, Rhopalurus junceus. Photo: Roland Teruel (C).

Last week I blogged about a newspaper article discussing the venom of the Cuban scorpion Rhopalurus junceus (Herbst, 1800) as a miracle drug for some serious cancer forms. After reading the article I thought about how the demand for this new drug has impacted on the populations of this (so far) common scorpion in Cuba. I asked Cuban scorpion expert Rolando Teruel about this and here is his answer:

"Starting about a decade ago, a government research program on the medical potential of the venom of R. junceus has spread all over Cuba. In order to obtain the amounts of venom needed, intensive captures of thousands of individuals are made all across the entire distribution area of the scorpion. But further, in several localities the native people collect indiscriminately as many scorpions as they can for personal use or illegal sale in the black market. The sum of both factors has impacted negatively on the abundance of this species and has depleted its populations drastically in many places of Matanzas, Cienfuegos, Santiago de Cuba and Guantanamo provinces, becoming a death threat to their survival (Cao, 2002; R. Teruel & L. F. de Armas, unpublished data)".

This is a quote from Teruel & Armas (2012), translated from Spanish by Rolando Teruel. As you can see, the large demand for Rhopalurus venom is now a threat to the species on Cuba. Hopefully, there will be measures controlling the exploitation of wild caught Rhopalurus on Cuba. 

Reference:
Teruel R, de Armas LF. Redescripcion de Rhopalurus junceus (Herbst 1800) (Scorpiones: Buthidae). Boletin de la SEA. 2012 (50):153-74.

Thanks to Dr. Rolando Teruel for sharing his insight with The Scorpion Files!